Gastroesophageal reflux in children
Keywords:
gastroesophageal reflux, GER, gastroesophageal reflux disease, GERD, infants, children
Abstract
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is the passage of gastric contents into the esophagus and is a normal physiologic process occurring several times per day in healthy individuals. In older children and adolescents, history and physical examination may be sufficient to diagnose gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Endoscopically-visible breaks in the distal esophageal mucosa are the most reliable evidence of reflux esophagitis. Esophageal pH monitoring quantitatively measures esophageal acid exposure. Combined multiple intraluminal impedance and pH monitoring (MII-pH) measures acidic, weakly acidic, non-acidic and gas reflux episodes. MII-pH is superior to pH monitoring alone for evaluation of the temporal relationship between symptoms and GERER. Barium contrast radiography is not useful for the GERERD diagnosis, but may be used to detect anatomic abnormalities. Parental education, guidance, and support are always required and usually sufficient to manage healthy, thriving infants with symptoms likely due to physiologic GERER. Use of a thickened, commercially available anti-regurgitation formula by preference, may decrease visible regurgitation. Buffering agents, alginate and sucralfate, can be beneficial if used as needed for occasional heartburn. Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are superior to histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs).
References
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4. M Murray JA, Camilleri M. The fall and rise of the hiatal hernia. Gastroenterology. 2000;119:1779-81.
5. Salvatore S, Hauser B, Vandemaele K, Novario R, Vandenplas Y. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in infants: how much is predictable with questionnaires, pH-metry, endoscopy and histology? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40:210-5.
6. Vakil N, van Zanten SV, Kahrilas P, Dent J, Jones R. The Montreal definition and classification of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a global evidence-based consensus. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:1900-20.
7. Von Baeyer CL, Spagrud LJ. Systematic review of observational (behavioral) measures of pain for children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years. Pain. 2007;127:140-150.
8. Kawahara H, Dent J, Davidson G. Mechanisms responsible for gastroesophageal reflux in children. Gastroenterology. 1997;113:399-408.
9. Papaila JG, Wilmot D, Grosfeld JL, Rescorla FJ, West KW, Vane DW. Increased incidence of delayed gastric emptying in children with gastroesophageal reflux. A prospective evaluation. Arch Surg. 1989;124:933-6.
10. Ravelli AM, Panarotto MB, Verdoni L, Consolati V, Bolognini S. Pulmonary aspiration shown by scintigraphy in gastroesophageal reflux-related respiratory disease. Chest. 2006;130:1520-6.
11. Gleeson K, Eggli DF, Maxwell SL. Quantitative aspiration during sleep in normal subjects. Chest. 1997;111:1266-72.
12. Tuttle SG, Grossman MI. Detection of gastro-esophageal reflux by simultaneous measurement of intraluminal pressure and pH. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1958;98:225-7.
13. Vandenplas Y, Goyvaerts H, Helven R, Sacre L. Gastroesophageal reflux, as measured by 24-hour pH monitoring, in 509 healthy infants screened for risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics. 1991;88:834-40.
14. Wenner J, Johansson J, Johnsson F, Oberg S. Optimal thresholds and discriminatory power of 48-h wireless esophageal pH monitoring in the diagnosisof GER D. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:1862-9.
15. Vandenplas Y, Franckx-Goossens A, Pipeleers-Marichal M, Derde MP, Sacre-Smits L. Area under pH 4: advantages of a new parameter in the interpretation of esophageal pH monitoring data in infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1989;9:34-9.
16. Johnson LF, Demeester TR. Twenty-four-hour pH monitoring of the distal esophagus. A quantitative measure of gastroesophageal reflux. Am J Gastroenterol 1974;62:325-32.
17. Johnson LF, DeMeester TR. Development of the 24-hour intraesophageal pH monitoring composite scoring system. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1986;8 Suppl 1:52-8.
18. Boix-Ochoa J, Lafuenta JM, Gil-Vernet JM. Twenty-four hour exophageal pH monitoring in gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 1980;15:74-8.
19. Chiou E, Rosen R, Jiang H, Nurko S. Diagnosis of supra-esophageal gastric reflux: correlation of oropharyngeal pH with esophageal impedance monitoring for gastro-esophageal reflux. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23:717-e326.
20. Orel R, Vidmar G. Do acid and bile reflux into the esophagus simultaneously? Temporal relationship between duodenogastro-esophageal reflux and esophageal pH. Pediatr Int. 2007;49:226-31.
21. Silny J. Intraluminal multiple electric impedance procedure for measurement of gastrointestinal motility. J Gastrointest Motil. 1991;3:151-62.
22. Salvatore S, Arrigo S, Luini C, Vandenplas Y. Esophageal impedance in children: symptom-based results. J Pediatr. 2010;157:949-54
23. Lundell LR, Dent J, Bennett JR, Blum AL, Armstrong D, Galmiche JP, et al. Endoscopic assessment of oesophagitis: clinical and functional correlates and further validation of the Los Angeles classification. Gut. 1999;45:172-80.
24. Hetzel DJ, Dent J, Reed WD, Narielvala FM, Mackinnon M, McCarthy JH, et al. Healing and relapse of severe peptic esophagitis after treatment with omeprazole. Gastroenterology. 1988;95:903-12.
25. Dahms BB. Reflux esophagitis: sequelae and differential diagnosis in infants and children including eosinophilic esophagitis. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2004;7:5-16.
26. Furuta GT, Liacouras CA, Collins MH, Gupta SK, Justinich C, Putnam PE, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis in children and adults: a systematic review and consensus recommendations for diagnosis and treatment. Gastroenterology. 2007;133:1342-63.
27. Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Kelsey SF, Frankel E. Natural history of infant reflux esophagitis: symptoms and morphometric histology during one year without pharmacotherapy. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:628-40
28. Hassall E. Cardia-type mucosa as an esophageal metaplastic condition in children: “Barrett’s esophagus, intestinal metaplasia-negative?†J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47:102-6.
29. Crapko M, Kerschner JE, Syring M, Johnston N. Role of extra-esophageal reflux in chronic otitis media with effusion. Laryngoscope. 2007;117:1419-23.
30. Starosta V, Kitz R, Hartl D, Marcos V, Reinhardt D, Griese M. Bronchoalveolar pepsin, bile acids, oxidation, and inflammation in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Chest. 2007;132:1557-64.
31. Gold BD, Gunasekaran T, Tolia V, Wetzler G, Conter H, Traxler B, et al. Safety and symptom improvement with esomeprazole in adolescents with gastroesophageal reflux disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2007;45:520-9.
32. Tolia V, Bishop PR, Tsou VM, Gremse D, Soffer EF, Comer GM. Multicenter, randomized, double-blind study comparing 10, 20 and 40 mg pantoprazole in children (5-11 years) with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;42:384-91.
33. Vakil N. Review article: how valuable are proton-pump inhibitors in establishing a diagnosis of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease? Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22 Suppl 1:64-9.
34. Nelson SP, Chen EH, Syniar GM, Christoffel KK. Prevalence of symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux during infancy. A pediatric practice-based survey. Pediatric Practice Research Group. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997;151:569-72.
35. Martin AJ, Pratt N, Kennedy JD, Ryan P, Ruffin RE, Miles E, et al. Natural history and familial relationships of infant spilling to 9 years of age. Pediatrics. 2002;109:1061-7.
36. Hegar B, Rantos R, Firmansyah A, De Schepper J, Vandenplas Y. Natural evolution of infantile regurgitation versus the efficacy of thickened formula. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47:26-30.
37. Iacono G, Carroccio A, Cavataio F, Montalto G, Kazmierska I, Lorello D, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux and cow’s milk allergy in infants: a prospective study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1996;97:822-7.
38. Hill DJ, Cameron DJ, Francis DE, Gonzalez-Andaya AM, Hosking CS. Challenge confirmation of late-onset reactions to extensively hydrolyzed formulas in infants with multiple food protein intolerance. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96:386-94.
39. Khoshoo V, Ross G, Brown S, Edell D. Smaller volume, thickened formulas in the management of gastroesophageal reflux in thriving infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;31:554-6.
40. Horvath A, Dziechciarz P, Szajewska H. The effect of thickened-feed interventions on gastroesophageal reflux in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e1268-77.
41. Orenstein SR, Magill HL, Brooks P. Thickening of infant feedings for therapy of gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr. 1987;110:181-6.
42. Ferry GD, Selby M, Pietro TJ. Clinical response to short-term nasogastric feeding in infants with gastroesophageal reflux and growth failure. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1983;2:57-61.
43. Orenstein SR, Whitington PF, Orenstein DM. The infant seat as treatment for gastroesophageal reflux. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:760-3.
44. Chao HC, Vandenplas Y. Effect of cereal-thickened formula and upright positioning on regurgitation, gastric emptying, and weight gain in infants with regurgitation. Nutrition. 2007;23:23-8.
45. Vandenplas Y, Hauser B. Gastro-oesophageal reflux, sleep pattern, apparent life- threatening event and sudden infant death. The point of view of a gastro-enterologist. Eur J Pediatr. 2000;159:726-9.
46. Adams EJ, Chavez GF, Steen D, Shah R, Iyasu S, Krous HF. Changes in the epidemiologic profile of sudden infant death syndrome as rates decline among California infants: 1990-1995. Pediatrics. 1998;102:1445-51.
47. Kaltenbach T, Crockett S, Gerson LBLB. Are lifestyle measures effective in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease? An evidence-based approach. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:965-71.
48. Katz LC, Just R, Castell DO. Body position affects recumbent postprandial reflux. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1994;18:280-3.
49. Van Pinxteren B, Numans ME, Bonis PA, Lau J. Short-term treatment with proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists and prokinetics for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease-like symptoms and endoscopy negative reflux disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006:CD002095.
50. Wilder-Smith CH, Ernst T, Gennoni M, Zeyen B, Halter F, Merki HS. Tolerance to oral H2-receptor antagonists. Dig Dis Sci. 1990;35:976-83.
51. O Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Devandry SN, Liacouras CA, Czinn SJ, Dice JE, et al. Famotidine for infant gastro-oesophageal reflux: a multi-centre, randomized, placebo-controlled, withdrawal trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17:1097-107.
52. Kahrilas PJ, Shaheen NJ, Vaezi MF, Hiltz SW, Black E, Modlin IM, et al. American Gastroenterological Association medical position statement on the management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 2008;135:1383-91.
53. Canani RB, Cirillo P, Roggero P, Romano C, Malamisura B, Terrin G, et al. Therapy with gastric acidity inhibitors increases the risk of acute gastroenteritis and community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatrics. 2006;117:e817-20.
54. Laheij RJ, Sturkenboom MC, Hassing RJ, Dieleman J, Stricker BH, Jansen JB. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia and use of gastric acid-suppressive drugs. JAMA. 2004;292:1955-60.
55. Pritchard DS, Baber N, Stephenson T. Should domperidone be used for the treatment of gastro-oesophageal reflux in children? Systematic review of randomized controlled trials in children aged 1 month to 11 years old. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:725-9.
56. O Omari TI, Benninga MA, Sansom L, Butler RN, Dent J, Davidson GP. Effect of baclofen on esophagogastric motility and gastroesophageal reflux in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Pediatr. 2006;149:468-74.
57. Tsou VM, Young RM , Hart MH, Vanderhoof JA. Elevated plasma aluminum levels in normal infants receiving antacids containing aluminum. Pediatrics. 1991;87:148-51.
58. Lobe TE. The current role of laparoscopic surgery for gastroesophageal reflux disease in infants and children. Surg Endosc. 2007;21:167-74.
59. Hassall E. Outcomes of fundoplication: causes for concern, newer options. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:1047-52.
60. Pearl RH, Robie DK, Ein SH, Shandling B, Wesson DE, Superina R, et al. Complications of gastroesophageal antireflux surgery in neurologically impaired versus neurologically normal children. J Pediatr Surg. 1990;25:1169-73.
61. Diaz DM, Gibbons TE, Heiss K, Wulkan ML, Ricketts RRRR, Gold BD. Antireflux surgery outcomes in pediatric gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:1844-52.
62. Goldin AB, Sawin R, Seidel KD, Flum DR. Do antireflux operations decrease the rate of reflux-related hospitalizations in children? Pediatrics. 2006;118:2326-33.
63. Lee SL, Shabatian H, Hsu JW, Applebaum H, Haigh PI. Hospital admissions for respiratory symptoms and failure to thrive before and after Nissen fundoplication. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43:59-63.
64. Thomson M, Antao B, Hall S, Afzal N, Hurlstone P, Swain CP, et al. Medium-term outcome of endoluminal gastroplication with the EndoCinch device in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;46:172-7.
2. Sherman PM, Hassall E, Fagundes-Neto U, Gold BD, Kato S, Koletzko S, et al. A global, evidence-based consensus on the definition of gastroesophageal reflux disease in the pediatric population. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104:1278-95
3. Shay S, Tutuian R, Sifrim D, Vela M, Wise J, Balaji N, et al. Twenty-four hour ambulatory simultaneous impedance and pH monitoring: a multicenter report of normal values from 60 healthy volunteers. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004;99:1037-43.
4. M Murray JA, Camilleri M. The fall and rise of the hiatal hernia. Gastroenterology. 2000;119:1779-81.
5. Salvatore S, Hauser B, Vandemaele K, Novario R, Vandenplas Y. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in infants: how much is predictable with questionnaires, pH-metry, endoscopy and histology? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40:210-5.
6. Vakil N, van Zanten SV, Kahrilas P, Dent J, Jones R. The Montreal definition and classification of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a global evidence-based consensus. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:1900-20.
7. Von Baeyer CL, Spagrud LJ. Systematic review of observational (behavioral) measures of pain for children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years. Pain. 2007;127:140-150.
8. Kawahara H, Dent J, Davidson G. Mechanisms responsible for gastroesophageal reflux in children. Gastroenterology. 1997;113:399-408.
9. Papaila JG, Wilmot D, Grosfeld JL, Rescorla FJ, West KW, Vane DW. Increased incidence of delayed gastric emptying in children with gastroesophageal reflux. A prospective evaluation. Arch Surg. 1989;124:933-6.
10. Ravelli AM, Panarotto MB, Verdoni L, Consolati V, Bolognini S. Pulmonary aspiration shown by scintigraphy in gastroesophageal reflux-related respiratory disease. Chest. 2006;130:1520-6.
11. Gleeson K, Eggli DF, Maxwell SL. Quantitative aspiration during sleep in normal subjects. Chest. 1997;111:1266-72.
12. Tuttle SG, Grossman MI. Detection of gastro-esophageal reflux by simultaneous measurement of intraluminal pressure and pH. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1958;98:225-7.
13. Vandenplas Y, Goyvaerts H, Helven R, Sacre L. Gastroesophageal reflux, as measured by 24-hour pH monitoring, in 509 healthy infants screened for risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics. 1991;88:834-40.
14. Wenner J, Johansson J, Johnsson F, Oberg S. Optimal thresholds and discriminatory power of 48-h wireless esophageal pH monitoring in the diagnosisof GER D. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:1862-9.
15. Vandenplas Y, Franckx-Goossens A, Pipeleers-Marichal M, Derde MP, Sacre-Smits L. Area under pH 4: advantages of a new parameter in the interpretation of esophageal pH monitoring data in infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1989;9:34-9.
16. Johnson LF, Demeester TR. Twenty-four-hour pH monitoring of the distal esophagus. A quantitative measure of gastroesophageal reflux. Am J Gastroenterol 1974;62:325-32.
17. Johnson LF, DeMeester TR. Development of the 24-hour intraesophageal pH monitoring composite scoring system. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1986;8 Suppl 1:52-8.
18. Boix-Ochoa J, Lafuenta JM, Gil-Vernet JM. Twenty-four hour exophageal pH monitoring in gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Surg. 1980;15:74-8.
19. Chiou E, Rosen R, Jiang H, Nurko S. Diagnosis of supra-esophageal gastric reflux: correlation of oropharyngeal pH with esophageal impedance monitoring for gastro-esophageal reflux. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23:717-e326.
20. Orel R, Vidmar G. Do acid and bile reflux into the esophagus simultaneously? Temporal relationship between duodenogastro-esophageal reflux and esophageal pH. Pediatr Int. 2007;49:226-31.
21. Silny J. Intraluminal multiple electric impedance procedure for measurement of gastrointestinal motility. J Gastrointest Motil. 1991;3:151-62.
22. Salvatore S, Arrigo S, Luini C, Vandenplas Y. Esophageal impedance in children: symptom-based results. J Pediatr. 2010;157:949-54
23. Lundell LR, Dent J, Bennett JR, Blum AL, Armstrong D, Galmiche JP, et al. Endoscopic assessment of oesophagitis: clinical and functional correlates and further validation of the Los Angeles classification. Gut. 1999;45:172-80.
24. Hetzel DJ, Dent J, Reed WD, Narielvala FM, Mackinnon M, McCarthy JH, et al. Healing and relapse of severe peptic esophagitis after treatment with omeprazole. Gastroenterology. 1988;95:903-12.
25. Dahms BB. Reflux esophagitis: sequelae and differential diagnosis in infants and children including eosinophilic esophagitis. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2004;7:5-16.
26. Furuta GT, Liacouras CA, Collins MH, Gupta SK, Justinich C, Putnam PE, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis in children and adults: a systematic review and consensus recommendations for diagnosis and treatment. Gastroenterology. 2007;133:1342-63.
27. Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Kelsey SF, Frankel E. Natural history of infant reflux esophagitis: symptoms and morphometric histology during one year without pharmacotherapy. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:628-40
28. Hassall E. Cardia-type mucosa as an esophageal metaplastic condition in children: “Barrett’s esophagus, intestinal metaplasia-negative?†J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47:102-6.
29. Crapko M, Kerschner JE, Syring M, Johnston N. Role of extra-esophageal reflux in chronic otitis media with effusion. Laryngoscope. 2007;117:1419-23.
30. Starosta V, Kitz R, Hartl D, Marcos V, Reinhardt D, Griese M. Bronchoalveolar pepsin, bile acids, oxidation, and inflammation in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Chest. 2007;132:1557-64.
31. Gold BD, Gunasekaran T, Tolia V, Wetzler G, Conter H, Traxler B, et al. Safety and symptom improvement with esomeprazole in adolescents with gastroesophageal reflux disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2007;45:520-9.
32. Tolia V, Bishop PR, Tsou VM, Gremse D, Soffer EF, Comer GM. Multicenter, randomized, double-blind study comparing 10, 20 and 40 mg pantoprazole in children (5-11 years) with symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;42:384-91.
33. Vakil N. Review article: how valuable are proton-pump inhibitors in establishing a diagnosis of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease? Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22 Suppl 1:64-9.
34. Nelson SP, Chen EH, Syniar GM, Christoffel KK. Prevalence of symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux during infancy. A pediatric practice-based survey. Pediatric Practice Research Group. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997;151:569-72.
35. Martin AJ, Pratt N, Kennedy JD, Ryan P, Ruffin RE, Miles E, et al. Natural history and familial relationships of infant spilling to 9 years of age. Pediatrics. 2002;109:1061-7.
36. Hegar B, Rantos R, Firmansyah A, De Schepper J, Vandenplas Y. Natural evolution of infantile regurgitation versus the efficacy of thickened formula. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47:26-30.
37. Iacono G, Carroccio A, Cavataio F, Montalto G, Kazmierska I, Lorello D, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux and cow’s milk allergy in infants: a prospective study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1996;97:822-7.
38. Hill DJ, Cameron DJ, Francis DE, Gonzalez-Andaya AM, Hosking CS. Challenge confirmation of late-onset reactions to extensively hydrolyzed formulas in infants with multiple food protein intolerance. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96:386-94.
39. Khoshoo V, Ross G, Brown S, Edell D. Smaller volume, thickened formulas in the management of gastroesophageal reflux in thriving infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;31:554-6.
40. Horvath A, Dziechciarz P, Szajewska H. The effect of thickened-feed interventions on gastroesophageal reflux in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e1268-77.
41. Orenstein SR, Magill HL, Brooks P. Thickening of infant feedings for therapy of gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr. 1987;110:181-6.
42. Ferry GD, Selby M, Pietro TJ. Clinical response to short-term nasogastric feeding in infants with gastroesophageal reflux and growth failure. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1983;2:57-61.
43. Orenstein SR, Whitington PF, Orenstein DM. The infant seat as treatment for gastroesophageal reflux. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:760-3.
44. Chao HC, Vandenplas Y. Effect of cereal-thickened formula and upright positioning on regurgitation, gastric emptying, and weight gain in infants with regurgitation. Nutrition. 2007;23:23-8.
45. Vandenplas Y, Hauser B. Gastro-oesophageal reflux, sleep pattern, apparent life- threatening event and sudden infant death. The point of view of a gastro-enterologist. Eur J Pediatr. 2000;159:726-9.
46. Adams EJ, Chavez GF, Steen D, Shah R, Iyasu S, Krous HF. Changes in the epidemiologic profile of sudden infant death syndrome as rates decline among California infants: 1990-1995. Pediatrics. 1998;102:1445-51.
47. Kaltenbach T, Crockett S, Gerson LBLB. Are lifestyle measures effective in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease? An evidence-based approach. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:965-71.
48. Katz LC, Just R, Castell DO. Body position affects recumbent postprandial reflux. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1994;18:280-3.
49. Van Pinxteren B, Numans ME, Bonis PA, Lau J. Short-term treatment with proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists and prokinetics for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease-like symptoms and endoscopy negative reflux disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006:CD002095.
50. Wilder-Smith CH, Ernst T, Gennoni M, Zeyen B, Halter F, Merki HS. Tolerance to oral H2-receptor antagonists. Dig Dis Sci. 1990;35:976-83.
51. O Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Devandry SN, Liacouras CA, Czinn SJ, Dice JE, et al. Famotidine for infant gastro-oesophageal reflux: a multi-centre, randomized, placebo-controlled, withdrawal trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17:1097-107.
52. Kahrilas PJ, Shaheen NJ, Vaezi MF, Hiltz SW, Black E, Modlin IM, et al. American Gastroenterological Association medical position statement on the management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 2008;135:1383-91.
53. Canani RB, Cirillo P, Roggero P, Romano C, Malamisura B, Terrin G, et al. Therapy with gastric acidity inhibitors increases the risk of acute gastroenteritis and community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatrics. 2006;117:e817-20.
54. Laheij RJ, Sturkenboom MC, Hassing RJ, Dieleman J, Stricker BH, Jansen JB. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia and use of gastric acid-suppressive drugs. JAMA. 2004;292:1955-60.
55. Pritchard DS, Baber N, Stephenson T. Should domperidone be used for the treatment of gastro-oesophageal reflux in children? Systematic review of randomized controlled trials in children aged 1 month to 11 years old. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:725-9.
56. O Omari TI, Benninga MA, Sansom L, Butler RN, Dent J, Davidson GP. Effect of baclofen on esophagogastric motility and gastroesophageal reflux in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Pediatr. 2006;149:468-74.
57. Tsou VM, Young RM , Hart MH, Vanderhoof JA. Elevated plasma aluminum levels in normal infants receiving antacids containing aluminum. Pediatrics. 1991;87:148-51.
58. Lobe TE. The current role of laparoscopic surgery for gastroesophageal reflux disease in infants and children. Surg Endosc. 2007;21:167-74.
59. Hassall E. Outcomes of fundoplication: causes for concern, newer options. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:1047-52.
60. Pearl RH, Robie DK, Ein SH, Shandling B, Wesson DE, Superina R, et al. Complications of gastroesophageal antireflux surgery in neurologically impaired versus neurologically normal children. J Pediatr Surg. 1990;25:1169-73.
61. Diaz DM, Gibbons TE, Heiss K, Wulkan ML, Ricketts RRRR, Gold BD. Antireflux surgery outcomes in pediatric gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:1844-52.
62. Goldin AB, Sawin R, Seidel KD, Flum DR. Do antireflux operations decrease the rate of reflux-related hospitalizations in children? Pediatrics. 2006;118:2326-33.
63. Lee SL, Shabatian H, Hsu JW, Applebaum H, Haigh PI. Hospital admissions for respiratory symptoms and failure to thrive before and after Nissen fundoplication. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43:59-63.
64. Thomson M, Antao B, Hall S, Afzal N, Hurlstone P, Swain CP, et al. Medium-term outcome of endoluminal gastroplication with the EndoCinch device in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;46:172-7.
Published
2011-12-31
How to Cite
1.
Hegar B, Vandenplas Y. Gastroesophageal reflux in children. PI [Internet]. 31Dec.2011 [cited 13Nov.2024];51(6):361-1. Available from: https://paediatricaindonesiana.org/index.php/paediatrica-indonesiana/article/view/864
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Received 2016-10-11
Accepted 2016-10-11
Published 2011-12-31
Accepted 2016-10-11
Published 2011-12-31
