The growth of foot arches and influencing factors
Keywords:
foot arch growth, flat foot, pes planus, pes cavus
Abstract
Background Foot arches are important components for body sup-port. Foot arch deformity caused by growth abnormalities cause
serious limitations in daily activities.
Objectives To determine the patterns of foot arch growth, factors
influencing foot arch growth, and the timing for intervention in er-
rant growth patterns.
Methods A cross-sectional study evaluated the foot arches of chil-
dren aged 0-18 years according to age and sex. Subjects included
had no evidence of physical abnormality other than flat foot, knock-
knee, or bow leg. Subjects were grouped per year of age. Data on
foot arch class, age, sex, weight, height, medial intercondylar dis-
tance, and medial intermalleolar distance were recorded. Chi-
square test, correlation, binary and linear regressions, general lin-
ear model, and contrast matrix were performed.
Results In 8376 children aged 0-18 years, flat foot grade 3 had
stable proportions in all age groups. Flat foot grade 2 and 1 had
smaller proportions in older age groups than in younger ones. The
proportions of normal foot was greater in older age groups. Boys
at the age of 7 and girls at 9 have a small percentage of pes cavus.
The mean foot arch measurements were consistent with flat foot
grade 2 at age 0-3 years, flat foot grade 1 at 4 years, and normal
foot at age 18. Median foot arch measurement of children 0-10
years old was consistent with flat foot grade 1, while that of chil-
dren 11 years old was consistent with normal foot. Age and height
gave positive influence. Based on these measurements we infer
that the optimal time for intervention is 0-7 years for boys and 0-3
years for girls.
Conclusion The proportion of flat foot grade 3 is stable through-
out age groups, that of flat foot grade 2 and 1 are smaller in older
age groups, and that of normal foot is greater in older age groups.
Overgrowth happens in very small percentages after age of 7 in
boys and 9 in girls. Age, sex, height, weight, and growth of the
knees are influencing factors
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medicine principle of primary care. Baltimore: Mosby;
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hood. London: Butterworths; 1971. p. 304-309, 257-
64.
9. Johnson KA. Acquired flatfoot. In: Gould JS, editor.
The foot book. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1988.
p. 291-302.
10. McPoil TG, Brocato RS. The foot and ankle biome-
chanical evaluation and treatment. In: Gould JA,
Davies GJ, editors. Orthopedic and sports physical
therapy. St Louis: Mosby Company; 1985. p. 313-41.
11. Cavanagh PR. The biomechanics of running and run-
ning shoe problems. In: Segesser B, Pforringer W, edi-
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pedic secrets. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc; 1998.
p. 234-7.
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1999.
18. Ferial Hadipoetro. Anthropometri kaki pelari menuju
ukuran sepatu pelari yang lebih pas bagi pelari [the-
sis]. Bandung: Padjadjaran University; 1994.
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Golomb DH, Schork MA. Anthropometry of infants,
children, and youths to age 18 for product safety de-
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ed. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1978. p.
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Gajah Mada University; 1990. p. 1-25.
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antara ras dan penyakit di Indonesia. Berkala Ilmu
Kedokteran 1978; 10:105-18.
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tentang hubungan antara ras dan penyakit di Indonesia.
Berkala Ilmu Kedokteran 1978;10:105- 118.
26. Chiarelli AB. Evolution of the primate an introduc-
tion to the biology of man. London: Academic Press;
1973. p. 1-89, 184-5, 207-327.
27. Schultz AH. The life of primates. Zurich: Weidenfeld
and Nicolson; 1969. p. 48-91.
28. Sarrafian SK. Foot and ankle descriptive, topographic,
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29. Reyes TM, Reyes OBL. Kinesiology. Manila: UST
Printing Office; 1978. p. 1-20, 138-99.
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Orthopaedic basic science. Ohio: American Academy
of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1944. p. 583-600 .
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actions and reactions. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins;
1983. p. 3-121, 546-604.
32. Jensen CR, Schultz GW, Bangeter BL. Applied kinesi-
ology and biomechanics. 3rd ed. New York: MC Graw
Hill Book Company; 1983. p. 183-275.
33. Mann RA. Biomechanics of the foot. In: Gould JS,
editor. The foot book. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins;
1988. p. 48-63.
34. Gurtowski J, Dee R. Biomechanic of the knee.
Biomechanic of the foot and ankle In: Dee R, editor.
Principal of orthopaedic practice. New York: Mc Graw
Hill Book Company; 1989. p. 1066-75.
35. Hollis M, Kitchen SS. Biomechanic. In: Hollis M,
Kitchen SS, Sanford B, Waddington PT, editors. Prac-
tical exercise therapy. 3rd ed. London: Blackwell Sci-
ence; 1999. p. 8-38
36. Mark Ridley. Masalah-masalah evolusi. Jakarta:
Penerbit Universitas Indonesia; 1991. p. 1-13, 22-3,
25-40, 57-70, 71-85.
37. Bernstein R, Bernstein B. Biology: The study of life.
New York: Hancourt Brace Jovanovich; 1982. p. 220-
39.
38. Jacob T. Natural History of the earth and living beings
scientific and religious views. Proceeding of the Semi-
nar on Religion and Science; 2003 Jan 3; Yogyakarta,
Indonesia.
39. Kaplan FS. Form & function of bone. In: Simon
SR, editor. Orthopaedic basic science. Ohio:
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeon; 1999.
p. 127-84.
40. Lamonitti JP. Growth plate and bone development. In:
Simon SR, editor. Orthopaedic basic science. Ohio:
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgery; 1999. p.
185-217.
41. Murphy KP, Steele BM. Musculoskeletal condition and
trauma in children. In: Molnar GE, Alexander MA,
editors. Pediatric rehabilitation. 3rd ed. Philadelphia:
Hanley and Befus; 1999. p. 393-8.
42. Lovell WW, Price CT, Meehan PL. The foot. In: Lovell
WW, Winter RB, editors. Pediatric orthopaedics. Phila-
delphia: JB Lippincott Company; 1986. p. 895-935.
43. Staheli LT. Torsional deformity. Pediatric Clinics of
North America 1977;24:799-811.
44. Claren SK, Smith DW. Congenital deformities. Pedi-
atric Clinic of North America 1977; 24:665-77
45. Molnar GE, Alexander M, Badell-Ribera A, Easton
JKM, Halpern D, Mathew D, et al. Pediatric rehabili-
tation. 2nd ed. Chicago: American Academy of Physi-
cal Medicine and Rehabilitation; 1982. p. C22.
46. Clay IM, Manal K. Coupling parameters in runners
with normal and excessive pronation. Journal of Ap-
plied Biomechanics 1997;13:109-24
47. Schon LC, Miller SD, Wienfeld SB. The ankle and foot.
In: Young BO, Young MA, Stiens SA, editors. PM and
R secrets. Philadelphia: Hanley and Belfus; 1997. p.
295.
48. Bordellon RL. Flatfoot hypermobile. In: Gould JS, edi-
tor. The foot book. Baltimore: William and Wilkins;
1988. p. 180-4
49. Steven PM. Bow leg and knock knees. In: Staheli TL,
editor. Pediatrics orthopaedic secrets. Philadelphia:
Henley & Belfus Inc; 1998. p. 207-15.
50. Supariasa IDN, Bakri B, Fajar I. Penilaian status gizi.
Jakarta: EGC; 2002. p. 1-76.
51. WHO. Physical status: The use and interpretation of
anthropometry. Geneva: WHO; 1995. p. 7, 187.
52. Ragnasson KT. Lower extremity orthotics, shoes, and
gait aids. In: Delisa JA, editors. Rehabilitation medi-
cine principal and practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia:
Lipponcott-Raven; 1998. p. 653-9.
53. Henneberg M, Louw GJ. Cross-sectional survey of
growth of urban and rural ‘cape coloured’ school chil-
dren: Anthropometry and functional tests. Am J Hum
Biol 1998;10:73-85/
54. Susilowati D. Association between anthropometric
measurements and sosioeconomic situation in East
Jakarta household [dissertation]. Jakarta: University
of Indonesia; 1997.
55. Gilmour JC, Burn Y. The measurement of the medial
longitudinal arch in children. Foot Ankle Int
2001;22:493-8
56. Volpon JB. Foot print analysis during the growth pe-
riod. J Pediatr Orthop 1994;14:83-8.
57. Merrick J. Musculoskeletal problems in down syndrome
European paediatric orthopaedic society survey: The
Israeli sample. J Pediatr Orthop 2000;9:185-92.
Wilkins; 1985. p. 1- 112, 180-95, 259-84, 324-44, 373-
97, 478-507.
2. Munandar A. Ikhtisar anatomi alat gerak dan ilmu
gerak. Jakarta: EGC; 1995. p. 137-64.
3. Helfand AE. Public health and pediatric medicine.
Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1987. p. 181-5.
4. Steindler A. Kinesiology of the human body under nor-
mal and pathological conditions. 2nd ed. Illinois:
Charles Thomas Publisher; 1964. p. 326-60, 373-414.
5. Adams JC, Hambled DL. Outline of orthopedics. 11th
ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1990. p. 343–5,
371-3.
6. Brody DM. Clinical symposia running injuries preven-
tion and management. Ciba-Geigy;1987;39:1-36.
7. Dyal CM, Thompson FM. The Foot and ankle. In:
Scuderi GR, MCCann PD, Bruno PJ, editors. Sports
medicine principle of primary care. Baltimore: Mosby;
1997. p. 386-97.
8. Lloyd–Roberts GC. Orthopedics in infancy and child-
hood. London: Butterworths; 1971. p. 304-309, 257-
64.
9. Johnson KA. Acquired flatfoot. In: Gould JS, editor.
The foot book. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1988.
p. 291-302.
10. McPoil TG, Brocato RS. The foot and ankle biome-
chanical evaluation and treatment. In: Gould JA,
Davies GJ, editors. Orthopedic and sports physical
therapy. St Louis: Mosby Company; 1985. p. 313-41.
11. Cavanagh PR. The biomechanics of running and run-
ning shoe problems. In: Segesser B, Pforringer W, edi-
tors. The shoe in sport. Chicago: Year Book Medical
Publisher; 1989. p. 3-15.
12. Mosca VS. Flatfoot. In: Staheli LT. Pediatrics ortho-
pedic secrets. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc; 1998.
p. 234-7.
13. Tachjian MO. Clinical pediatric orthopedics the art
of diagnosis and principles of management. Stanford:
Appleton and Lange; 1997. p. 2-8, 24-40, 78-85,
118-65.
14. Tachjian MO. Pediatric orthopedics. Vol 2. 2nd ed.
Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 1990. p. 2405-
82, 2557-70, 2717-58.
15. Peterson L, Renstrom P. Sports injuries their preven-
tion and treatment. In: Hope K, editor. Singapore:
Kyodo Shing Loong Printing; 1986. p. 71-85, 313-4,
340-74.
16. Olivier G. Practical anthropology. Springfield: Charles
C Thomas Publisher; 1969. p. 31-8.
17. Meidi Maryanthi Husain. Variasi normal sudut lutut
(genu varum dan genu valgum) pada anak kelompok
2-7 tahun [thesis]. Jakarta: University of Indonesia;
1999.
18. Ferial Hadipoetro. Anthropometri kaki pelari menuju
ukuran sepatu pelari yang lebih pas bagi pelari [the-
sis]. Bandung: Padjadjaran University; 1994.
19. Snyder RG, Schneider LW, Owing CL, Reynolds HM,
Golomb DH, Schork MA. Anthropometry of infants,
children, and youths to age 18 for product safety de-
sign. Michigan: University of Michigan; 1977. p. 1-45,
416-25.
20. Lowrey GH. Growth and development of children. 7th
ed. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers; 1978. p.
54-449.
21. Marshall WA. Human growth and its disorders. London:
Academic Press; 1977. p. 1-52, 86-96, 110-1, 114-8.
22. Tanner JM. Foetus into man physical growth from con-
ception to maturity. Cambridge: Havard University
Press; 1978. p. 24-51, 117-67
23. Jacob T. Rasiologi dan rasisma di abad XX. Yogyakarta:
Gajah Mada University; 1990. p. 1-25.
24. Jacob T. Beberapa pokok persoalan tentang hubungan
antara ras dan penyakit di Indonesia. Berkala Ilmu
Kedokteran 1978; 10:105-18.
25. Birdsell, Joseph B, Livingstone. Beberapa pokok persoalan
tentang hubungan antara ras dan penyakit di Indonesia.
Berkala Ilmu Kedokteran 1978;10:105- 118.
26. Chiarelli AB. Evolution of the primate an introduc-
tion to the biology of man. London: Academic Press;
1973. p. 1-89, 184-5, 207-327.
27. Schultz AH. The life of primates. Zurich: Weidenfeld
and Nicolson; 1969. p. 48-91.
28. Sarrafian SK. Foot and ankle descriptive, topographic,
functional. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott Company;
1983. p. 1-34, 127-42, 148-84, 208-59, 375-425.
29. Reyes TM, Reyes OBL. Kinesiology. Manila: UST
Printing Office; 1978. p. 1-20, 138-99.
30. Simon SR, et al. Kinesiology. In: Simon SR, editor.
Orthopaedic basic science. Ohio: American Academy
of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1944. p. 583-600 .
31. Schafer RC, et al. Clinical biomechanic muskuloskeletal
actions and reactions. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins;
1983. p. 3-121, 546-604.
32. Jensen CR, Schultz GW, Bangeter BL. Applied kinesi-
ology and biomechanics. 3rd ed. New York: MC Graw
Hill Book Company; 1983. p. 183-275.
33. Mann RA. Biomechanics of the foot. In: Gould JS,
editor. The foot book. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins;
1988. p. 48-63.
34. Gurtowski J, Dee R. Biomechanic of the knee.
Biomechanic of the foot and ankle In: Dee R, editor.
Principal of orthopaedic practice. New York: Mc Graw
Hill Book Company; 1989. p. 1066-75.
35. Hollis M, Kitchen SS. Biomechanic. In: Hollis M,
Kitchen SS, Sanford B, Waddington PT, editors. Prac-
tical exercise therapy. 3rd ed. London: Blackwell Sci-
ence; 1999. p. 8-38
36. Mark Ridley. Masalah-masalah evolusi. Jakarta:
Penerbit Universitas Indonesia; 1991. p. 1-13, 22-3,
25-40, 57-70, 71-85.
37. Bernstein R, Bernstein B. Biology: The study of life.
New York: Hancourt Brace Jovanovich; 1982. p. 220-
39.
38. Jacob T. Natural History of the earth and living beings
scientific and religious views. Proceeding of the Semi-
nar on Religion and Science; 2003 Jan 3; Yogyakarta,
Indonesia.
39. Kaplan FS. Form & function of bone. In: Simon
SR, editor. Orthopaedic basic science. Ohio:
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeon; 1999.
p. 127-84.
40. Lamonitti JP. Growth plate and bone development. In:
Simon SR, editor. Orthopaedic basic science. Ohio:
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgery; 1999. p.
185-217.
41. Murphy KP, Steele BM. Musculoskeletal condition and
trauma in children. In: Molnar GE, Alexander MA,
editors. Pediatric rehabilitation. 3rd ed. Philadelphia:
Hanley and Befus; 1999. p. 393-8.
42. Lovell WW, Price CT, Meehan PL. The foot. In: Lovell
WW, Winter RB, editors. Pediatric orthopaedics. Phila-
delphia: JB Lippincott Company; 1986. p. 895-935.
43. Staheli LT. Torsional deformity. Pediatric Clinics of
North America 1977;24:799-811.
44. Claren SK, Smith DW. Congenital deformities. Pedi-
atric Clinic of North America 1977; 24:665-77
45. Molnar GE, Alexander M, Badell-Ribera A, Easton
JKM, Halpern D, Mathew D, et al. Pediatric rehabili-
tation. 2nd ed. Chicago: American Academy of Physi-
cal Medicine and Rehabilitation; 1982. p. C22.
46. Clay IM, Manal K. Coupling parameters in runners
with normal and excessive pronation. Journal of Ap-
plied Biomechanics 1997;13:109-24
47. Schon LC, Miller SD, Wienfeld SB. The ankle and foot.
In: Young BO, Young MA, Stiens SA, editors. PM and
R secrets. Philadelphia: Hanley and Belfus; 1997. p.
295.
48. Bordellon RL. Flatfoot hypermobile. In: Gould JS, edi-
tor. The foot book. Baltimore: William and Wilkins;
1988. p. 180-4
49. Steven PM. Bow leg and knock knees. In: Staheli TL,
editor. Pediatrics orthopaedic secrets. Philadelphia:
Henley & Belfus Inc; 1998. p. 207-15.
50. Supariasa IDN, Bakri B, Fajar I. Penilaian status gizi.
Jakarta: EGC; 2002. p. 1-76.
51. WHO. Physical status: The use and interpretation of
anthropometry. Geneva: WHO; 1995. p. 7, 187.
52. Ragnasson KT. Lower extremity orthotics, shoes, and
gait aids. In: Delisa JA, editors. Rehabilitation medi-
cine principal and practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia:
Lipponcott-Raven; 1998. p. 653-9.
53. Henneberg M, Louw GJ. Cross-sectional survey of
growth of urban and rural ‘cape coloured’ school chil-
dren: Anthropometry and functional tests. Am J Hum
Biol 1998;10:73-85/
54. Susilowati D. Association between anthropometric
measurements and sosioeconomic situation in East
Jakarta household [dissertation]. Jakarta: University
of Indonesia; 1997.
55. Gilmour JC, Burn Y. The measurement of the medial
longitudinal arch in children. Foot Ankle Int
2001;22:493-8
56. Volpon JB. Foot print analysis during the growth pe-
riod. J Pediatr Orthop 1994;14:83-8.
57. Merrick J. Musculoskeletal problems in down syndrome
European paediatric orthopaedic society survey: The
Israeli sample. J Pediatr Orthop 2000;9:185-92.
Published
2016-10-10
How to Cite
1.
Idris F. The growth of foot arches and influencing factors. PI [Internet]. 10Oct.2016 [cited 30Apr.2024];45(3):111-. Available from: https://paediatricaindonesiana.org/index.php/paediatrica-indonesiana/article/view/815
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Received 2016-10-06
Accepted 2016-10-06
Published 2016-10-10
Accepted 2016-10-06
Published 2016-10-10
